STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS - Psychoactive Drugs

Overview of Psychoactive Drugs

Psychoactive drugs are chemical substances that affect the brain functioning, causing changes in behavior, mood and consciousness. While these drugs can be used therapeutically to treat both physical and psychological disorders, they are also used recreationally to alter mood, perceptions and consciousness.

Depressants

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Depressants are drugs that inhibit the function of the central nervous system and are among the most widely used drugs in the world. Drugs that are classed as depressants include alcohol, barbiturates andbenzodiazepines.

Stimulants

Image © Henning Birnbaum

Stimulants are a class of psychoactive drug that tend to increase activity in the brain. These drugs can temporarily elevate alertness, mood and awareness. While some stimulant drugs are legal and widely used, all can be addicting. Drugs that are classed as stimulants include caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, amphetamines and some prescription drugs.

Psychedelics

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Psychedelic drugs, or hallucinogens, are psychoactive drugs that affect thinking, alter moods and distort perceptions. Drugs that are classed as psychedelics include marijuana, LSD, psilocybin (derived from a type of mushroom) and mescaline (found in the peyote cactus).

STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS - What Is Hypnosis?

What exactly is hypnosis? While definitions can vary, the American Psychological Association describes hypnosis as a cooperative interaction in which the participant responds to the suggestions of the hypnotist. While hypnosis has become well-known thanks to popular acts where people are prompted to performs unusual or ridiculous actions, the technique has also been clinically proven to provide medical and therapeutic benefits, most notably in the reduction of pain and anxiety. It has even been suggested that hypnosis can reduce the symptoms of dementia.1

Learn about hypnosis including some of the 

most common myths and misconceptions.

Image by James Steidl/iStockPhoto

How Does Hypnosis Work?

When you hear the wordhypnotist, what comes to mind? If you’re like many people, the word may conjure up images of a sinister stage-villain who brings about a hypnotic state by swinging a pocket watch back and forth.

In reality, real hypnosis bears little resemblance to these stereotyped images. According to John Kihlstrom, "The hypnotist does not hypnotize the individual. Rather, the hypnotist serves as a sort of coach or tutor whose job is to help the person become hypnotized"2 While hypnosis is often described as a sleep-like trance state, it is better expressed as a state characterized by focused attention, heightened suggestibility and vivid fantasies.

What Effects Does Hypnosis Have?

The experience of hypnosis can vary dramatically from one person to another. Some hypnotized individuals report feeling a sense of detachment or extreme relaxation during the hypnotic state, while others even feel that their actions seem to occur outside of their conscious volition. Other individuals may remain fully aware and able to carry out conversations while under hypnosis.

Experiments by researcher Ernest Hilgard demonstrated how hypnosis can be used to dramatically alter perceptions. After instructing a hypnotized individual to not feel pain in his or her arm, the participant's arm was then placed in ice water. While non-hypnotized individuals had to remove their arm from the water after a few seconds due to the pain, the hypnotized individuals were able to leave their arms in the ice water for several minutes without experiencing pain.3

What Can Hypnosis Be Used For?

The following are just a few of the applications for hypnosis that have been demonstrated with research:

• The treatment of chronic pain conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis.
• The treatment and reduction of pain during childbirth.
• The reduction of the symptoms of dementia.
• Hypnotherapy may be helpful for certain symptoms of ADHD.
• The reduction of nausea and vomiting in cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy.4
• Control of pain during dental procedures.
• Elimination or reduction of skin conditions including warts and psoriasis.
• Alleviation of symptoms association with Irritable Bowel Syndrome.5

Can You Be Hypnotized?

While many people think that they cannot be hypnotized, research has shown that a large number of people are more hypnotizable than they believe.

• Fifteen percent of people are very responsive to hypnosis.6
• Children tend to be more susceptible to hypnosis.7
• Approximately ten percent of adults are considered difficult or impossible to hypnotize.8
• People who can become easily absorbed in fantasies are much more responsive to hypnosis.2

If you are interested in being hypnotized, it is important to remember to approach the experience with an open mind. Research has suggested that individuals who view hypnosis in a positive light tend to respond better.9

Theories of Hypnosis

One of the best-known theories is Hilgard’s neodissociation theory of hypnosis. According to Hilgard, people in a hypnotic state experience a split consciousness in which there are two different streams of mental activity. While one stream of consciousness responds to the hypnotist’s suggestions, another dissociated stream processes information outside of the hypnotized individuals conscious awareness.3

Hypnosis Myths

Myth 1: When you wake up from hypnosis, you won’t remember anything that happened when you were hypnotized.

While amnesia may occur in very rare cases, people generally remember everything that occurred while they were hypnotized.5 However, hypnosis can have a significant effect on memory. Posthypnotic amnesia can lead an individual to forget certain things that occurred before or during hypnosis. However, this effect is generally limited and temporary.

Myth 2: Hypnosis can help people remember the exact details of a crime they witnessed.

While hypnosis can be used to enhance memory, the effects have been dramatically exaggerated in popular media. Research has found that hypnosis does not lead to significant memory enhancement or accuracy,10 and hypnosis can actually lead to false or distorted memories.11

Myth 3: You can be hypnotized against your will.

Despite stories about people being hypnotized without their consent,12 hypnosis requires voluntary participation on the part of the patient.5

Myth 4: The hypnotist has complete control of your actions while you’re under hypnosis.

While people often feel that their actions under hypnosis seem to occur without the influence of their will, a hypnotist cannot make you perform actions that are against your values or morals.3

Myth 5: Hypnosis can make you super-strong, fast or athletically talented.

While hypnosis can be used to enhance performance,13 it cannot make people stronger or more athletic than their existing physical capabilities.

References

1 University of Liverpool (2008, July 29). Hypnosis Shown To Reduce Symptoms Of Dementia. ScienceDaily. Found online at http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/07/080728111402.htm

2 Kilhstrom, J. F. (2001). Hypnosis and the psychological unconscious. In Howard S. Friedman (Ed.), Assessment and therapy: Specialty articles from the Encyclopedia of Mental Health. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

3Hilgard, E. R. (1986). Divided consciousness: Multiple controls in human thought and action. New York: Wiley.

4 Barrett, D. (2001). The power of hypnosis. Psychology Today. Found online at http://psychologytoday.com/articles/index.php?term=20010101-000034&page=1

5 Mayo Clicic. Hypnosis: Another way to manage pain, kick bad habits. Found online at http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/hypnosis/SA00084

6 Hilgard, E. R. (1982). Hypnotic susceptibility and implications for measurement. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 30, 394-403.

7 Kohen, D.P., & Olsen, K. (1993). Hypnotherapy with children. In J.W. Rhue, S.J. Lynn & I. Kirsch (Eds.),Handbook of clinical hypnosis. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

8 Register, P.A., & J.F. Kilhstrom. (1986). Finding the hypnotic virtuoso. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 34, 84-97.

9 Kirsch, I. (1996). Hypnotic enhancement of cognitive-behavioral weight loss treatments: Another meta-reanalysis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 517-519.

10 Nash, M.R. (2001, July). The truth and the hype of hypnosis. Scientific American, 285, 46-55.

11 Lynn, S. J. & Nash, M.R. (1994). Truth in memory: Ramifications for psychotherapy and hypnotherapy.American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 36, 194-208.

12 Barrus, A. (n.d.). Students hypnotized over the phone. BYU-I Scroll Online. Found online at http://www.byui.edu/scroll/archive/20050913/campus2.html

13 Morgan, W.P. (1993). Hypnosis and sport psychology. In J.W. Rhue, S.J. Lynn, & I. Kirsh (Eds.),Handbook of clinical hypnosis. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS - Dream Interpretation: What Do Dreams Mean?

Dreams can be mysterious, but understanding the meaning of our dreams can be downright baffling. The content of our dreams can shift suddenly, feature bizarre elements or frighten us with terrifying imagery. The fact that dreams can be so rich and compelling is what causes many to believe that there must be some meaning to our dreams.

While many theories exist to explain why we dream, no one yet fully understands their purpose, let alone how to interpret the meaning of dreams. In fact, some prominent researchers such as G. William Domhoff suggest that dreams most likely serve no real purpose.

Despite this, dream interpretation has becoming increasingly popular. While research has not demonstrated a purpose for dreams, many experts believe that dreams do have meaning.

According to Domhoff:

"'Meaning' has to do with coherence and with systematic relations to other variables, and in that regard dreams do have meaning. Furthermore, they are very "revealing" of what is on our minds. We have shown that 75 to 100 dreams from a person give us a very good psychological portrait of that individual. Give us 1000 dreams over a couple of decades and we can give you a profile of the person's mind that is almost as individualized and accurate as her or his fingerprints."

Freud: Dreams as the Road to the Unconscious Mind:

In his book The Interpretation of Dreams, Sigmund Freud suggested that the content of dreams is related to wish fulfillment. Freud believed that the manifest content of a dream, or the actually imagery and events of the dream, served to disguise the latent content, or the unconscious wishes of the dreamer.

Freud also described four elements of this process that he referred to as 'dream work':

• Condensation – Many different ideas and concepts are represented within the span of a single dream. Information is condensed into a single thought or image.

• Displacement – This element of dream work disguises the emotional meaning of the latent content by confusing the important and insignificant parts of the dream.


• Symbolization – This operation also censors the repressed ideas contained in the dream by including objects that are meant to symbolize the latent content of the dream.


• Secondary Revision – During this final stage of the dreaming process, Freud suggested that the bizarre elements of the dream are reorganized in order to make the dream comprehensible, thus generating the manifest content of the dream.

Jung: Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious:

While Carl Jung shared some commonalities with Freud, he felt that dreams were more than an expression of repressed wishes. Jung suggested that dreams revealed both the personal and collective unconscious and believed that dreams serve to compensate for parts of the psyche that are underdeveloped in waking life. However, later research by Hall discovered that the traits people exhibit while they awake are also expressed in dreams.

Jung also suggested that archetypes such as the anima, the shadow and the animus are often represented symbolic objects or figures in dreams. These symbols, he believed, represented attitudes that are repressed by the conscious mind. Unlike Freud, who often suggested that specific symbols represents specific unconscious thoughts, Jung believed that dreams can be highly personal and that interpreting these dreams involved knowing a great deal about the individual dreamer.

Hall: Dreams as a Cognitive Process:

Calvin S. Hall proposed that dreams are part of a cognitive process in which dreams serve as ‘conceptions’ of elements of our personal lives. Hall looked for themes and patterns by analyzing thousands of dream diaries from participants, eventually creating a quantitative coding system that divided the content of dreams into a number of different categories.

According to Hall’s theory, interpreting dreams requires knowing:

• The actions of the dreamer within the dream
• The objects and figures in the dream
• The interactions between the dreamer and the characters in the dream
• The dream’s setting, transitions and outcome

The ultimate goal of this dream interpretation is not to understand the dream, however, but to understand the dreamer.

Domhoff: Dreams as a Reflection of Waking Life:

G. William Domhoff is a prominent dream researcher who studied with Calvin Hall at the University of Miami. In large-scale studies on the content of dreams, Domhoff has found that dreams reflect the thoughts and concerns of a dreamer’s waking life. Domhoff suggests a neurocognitive model of dreams in which the process of dreaming results from neurological processes and a system of schemas. Dream content, he suggests, results from these cognitive processes.5

Popularizing Dream Interpretation

Since the 1970s, dream interpretation has grown increasingly popular thanks to work by authors such as Ann Faraday. In books such as The Dream Game, Faraday outlined techniques and ideas than anyone can use to interpret their own dreams. Today, consumers can purchase a wide variety of books that offer dream dictionaries, symbol guides and tips for interpreting and understanding dreams.

Dream research will undoubtedly continue to grow and generate interest from people interested in understanding the meaning of their dreams. However, dream expert G. William Domhoff recommends that "...unless you find your dreams fun, intellectually interesting, or artistically inspiring, then feel free to forget your dreams."1 Others such as Cartwright and Kaszniak propose that dream interpretation may actually reveal more about the interpreter than it does about the meaning of the dream itself.

"A dream is a work of art which requires of the dreamer no particular talent, special training, or technical competence. Dreaming is a creative enterprise in which all may and most do participate." – Clark S. Hall

STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS - Why Do We Dream? > Top Dream Theories

"Dreams are the touchstones of our characters." - Henry David Thoreau

Dreams have fascinated philosophers for thousands of years, but only recently have dreams been subjected to empirical research and concentrated scientific study. Chances are that you’ve often found yourself puzzling over the mysterious content of a dream, or perhaps you’ve wondered why you dream at all.

First, let’s start by answering a basic question – What is a dream? A dream can include any of the images, thoughts and emotions that are experienced during sleep. Dreams can be extraordinarily vivid or very vague; filled with joyful emotions or frightening imagery; focused and understandable or unclear and confusing.

Why do we dream? What purpose do dreams serve? While many theories have been proposed, no single consensus has emerged. Considering the enormous amount of time we spend in a dreaming state, the fact that researchers do not yet understand the purpose of dreams may seem baffling. However, it is important to consider that science is still unraveling the exact purpose and function of sleep itself.

Some researchers suggest that dreams serve no real purpose, while others believe that dreaming is essential to mental, emotional and physical well-being. Ernest Hoffman, director of the Sleep Disorders Center at Newton Wellesley Hospital in Boston, Mass., suggests that "...a possible (though certainly not proven) function of a dream to be weaving new material into the memory system in a way that both reduces emotional arousal and is adaptive in helping us cope with further trauma or stressful events."8

Next, let’s learn more about some of the most prominent dream theories.

Psychoanalytic Theory of Dreams:

Consistent with the psychoanalytic perspective, Sigmund Freud’s theory of dreams suggested that dreams were a representation of unconscious desires, thoughts and motivations. According to Freud’s psychoanalytic view of personality, people are driven by aggressive and sexual instincts that are repressed from conscious awareness. While these thoughts are not consciously expressed, Freud suggested that they find their way into our awareness via dreams.

In his famous book The Interpretation of Dreams, Freud wrote that dreams are "...disguised fulfillments of repressed wishes."1 He also described two different components of dreams: manifest content and latent content. Manifest content is made up of the actual images, thoughts and content contained within the dream, while the latent content represents the hidden psychological meaning of the dream.

Freud’s theory contributed to the popularity of dream interpretation, which remains popular today. However, research has failed to demonstrate that the manifest content disguises the real psychological significance of a dream.2

Activation- Synthesis Model of Dreaming:

The activation-synthesis model of dreaming was first proposed by J. Allan Hobson and Robert McClarley in 1977. According to this theory, circuits in the brain become activated during REM sleep, which causes areas of the limbic systeminvolved in emotions, sensations and memories, including the amygdala and hippocampus, to become active. The brain synthesizes and interprets this internal activity and attempts to find meaning in these signals, which results in dreaming. This model suggests that dreams are a subjective interpretation of signals generated by the brain during sleep.3

While this theory suggests that dreams are the result of internally generated signals, Hobson does not believe that dreams are meaningless. Instead, he suggests that dreaming is "…our most creative conscious state, one in which the chaotic, spontaneous recombination of cognitive elements produces novel configurations of information: new ideas. While many or even most of these ideas may be nonsensical, if even a few of its fanciful products are truly useful, our dream time will not have been wasted."4

Other Theories of Dreams:

Many other theories have been suggested to account for the occurrence and meaning of dreams. The following are just of few of the proposed ideas:

• One theory suggests that dreams are the result of our brains trying to interpret external stimuli during sleep. For example, the sound of the radio may be incorporated into the content of a dream 5.


• Another theory uses a computer metaphor to account for dreams. According to this theory, dreams serve to 'clean up' clutter from the mind, much like clean-up operations in a computer, refreshing the mind to prepare for the next day 6.


• Yet another model proposes that dreams function as a form of psychotherapy. In this theory, the dreamer is able to make connections between different thoughts and emotions in a safe environment 7.


• A contemporary model of dreaming combines some elements of various theories. The activation of the brain creates loose connections between thoughts and ideas, which are then guided by the emotions of the dreamer 8.

STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS - Characteristics of Dreams

5 Major Dream Characteristics

Dreams have fascinated artists, philosophers and researchers for thousands of years. However, it was not until fairly recently in history that dreams became the subject of serious scientific study. While dreams can vary considerably, sleep researcher J. Allan Hobson (1988) identified five basic characteristics of dreams:

1. Dreams Often Feature Intense Emotions

One of the major characteristics of dreams is that the emotions experienced in dreams can be intense, painful and acute. People commonly report dreaming about deeply embarrassing situations (i.e. being nude in public) or profoundly terrifying events (i.e. being chased by an attacker). In some instances, these emotions can become so intense that they interrupt the dream or cause the dreamer to wake abruptly. The three most common emotions that become intensified by dreams are anxiety, fear and surprise (Hobson, 7).

3. Strange Dream Content Is Accepted Without Question2. Dreams Are Frequently Disorganized and Illogical

Dreams are full of discontinuities, ambiguities and inconsistency, but sometimes these things can lead to downright bizarre dream content. According to Hobson (4), one of the hallmarks of dreams is "illogical content and organization, in which the unities of time, place and person do not apply, and natural laws are disobeyed." Some examples of illogical dream content includes flying, time travel, talking animals, sudden transformations of both people and objects and sudden shifts in setting.

The odd events and content that occur in dreams are typically accepted without question by the dreaming mind. According to Hobson, the unquestioning acceptance of dream content is due to the strength of our internally generated emotions and perceptions ("Dreaming," 5). Within the dream, these strange and illogical events, perceptions and objects are not seen as being out of place. If the dream is remembered upon waking, the content of the dream is seen as odd or even difficult to explain.

4. People Often Experience Bizarre Sensations

Strange sensory experiences are another cardinal characteristic of dreams. The sensation of falling, an inability to move quickly and being unable to control body movements are just a few of the commonly reported sensory experiences that occur during dreams.

5. Dreams Are Difficult to Remember

While memory seems to be intensified within the context of the dream, access to the information contained within the dream diminishes rapidly once the dreamer wakes. Dream researchers estimate that approximately 95% of all dreams are forgotten entirely upon awakening.

Understanding the Characteristics of Dreams

While many people may familiar with these five common characteristics of dreams, some may be unaware of just how common these experiences are. "Dream characteristics and dream object may be of an everyday nature or altogether fantastic and impossible collages of existing reality; they may behave normally or indulge in the most absurd, improbable or impossible actions in settings either familiar or bearing only the faintest resemblances to those of real life," Hobson explains (6).

STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS - Sleep – Stages, Theories & Problems with Sleep

From the ancient philosophers to modern pop culture, the nature and significance of sleep is an almost inescapable question. Understanding the sleep process as well and why we sleep is a topic of interest for many, while exploring some of the major problems with sleep is a topic of interest to anyone who has ever spent a restless night tossing and turning.

Stages of Sleep:

When you think of sleep, you might feel that it is a fairly uniform process. After all, you just fall asleep and that’s that, right? Not exactly. In reality, sleep progresses through a number of different stages that are marked by distinctive changes in brain activity. Learn more about thesestages of sleep, the characteristics of each unique stage and the pattern that occurs during a typical night of sleep.

Why We Sleep:

While there are a several different theories to explain why we sleep, scientists are still do not have a hard and fast answer for exactly why we sleep. One of the major theories suggests sleep is important for repair and restoration of the mind and body. Learn more about some of these majortheories of sleep in order to further explore this fascinating topic.

Problems with Sleep:

Anyone who has ever experienced a bout of insomnia knows that falling and staying asleep isn’t always so easy. Sleep disorders are a relatively common problem. Severe problems with sleep have even been linked to major depression and even suicide. Consider some of these common sleep disorders in order to learn about potential problems and possible causes for these problems with sleep.

STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS - Circadian Rhythms: The Body's "Clock"

All species have a timing mechanism, or 'clock,' that controls periods of activity and inactivity. These clocks are known as circadian rhythms and refer the cycle of physiological and biological processes that fluctuate on a roughly 24-hour timetable. You have probably noticed these tendencies yourself, feeling more energetic and alert during peak periods of the day and more lethargic and run-down at other times of the day.

While many people refer to circadian rhythms as a single process, there are actually a number of body clocks that oscillate throughout the day. For example, mental alertness tends to peak twice in a day at 9AM and 9PM, while physical strength tends to crest at 11AM and 7PM.

How Does Your Body "Keep Time?":

A tiny cluster of approximately 20,000 neurons in the hypothalamus controls your body’s many circadian rhythms. Known as the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), this master control center is responsible for acting as your body’s internal pacemaker. While the exact mechanisms for how this process works are unclear, environmental cues are important. Sunlight is perhaps the most apparent, controlling our daily sleep-wake schedule.

So how does sunlight affect your circadian rhythms? As the sunlight decreases at the close of the day, the visual system sends signals to the suprachiasmatic nucleus. Next, the SCN sends signals to the pineal gland to increase the produce of the hormone melatonin. This hormone increase helps reduced activity and makes you feel increasingly sleepy.

What Happens When There is No Sunlight?:

There has been a considerable amount of research on what happens to circadian rhythms when natural sunlight patterns are interrupted. Clinical research has shown that individuals who are blind from birth frequently have difficulty with their sleep-wake cycle because of the complete lack of environmental light cues. Those who perform shift-work or travel frequently are also subject to having their natural circadian rhythms disrupted.

In some major studies of circadian rhythms, participants stayed in underground units for weeks or even months at a time. Deprived of all natural light cues, the circadian rhythms of these participants began to shift toward a 25-hour schedule rather than the standard 24-hour pattern. Additionally, many of the body’s previously synchronized circadian rhythms shifted as well. When exposed to environmental sunlight signals, many of the body's rhythms operate on a very similar schedule. When all natural light cues are removed, these body clocks begin to operate on completely different schedules.

Points to Remember:

• Your circadian rhythms are tied to sunlight cues.


• Disrupting these patterns can lead to poor or difficult sleep.


• Without light signals, people tend to operate on a 25-hour schedule.


• Circadian rhythms also impact body temperature, pain sensitivity, mental alertness, physical strength, and the senses.

STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS - What is Consciousness?

Question: What is Consciousness?

Answer: Consciousness refers to your individual awareness of your unique thoughts, memories, feelings, sensations and environment. Your conscious experiences are constantly shifting and changing. For example, in one moment you may be focused on reading this article. Your consciousness may then shift to the memory of a conversation you had earlier with a co-worker. Next, you might notice how uncomfortable your chair is or maybe you are mentally planning dinner. This ever-shifting stream of thoughts can change dramatically from one moment to the next, but your experience of it seems smooth and effortless.

The conscious experience was one of the first topics studied by early psychologists. Structuralists used a process known as introspection to analyze and report conscious sensations, thoughts, and experiences. American psychologist William Jamescompared consciousness to a stream; unbroken and continuous despite constant shifts and changes. While the focus of much of the research in psychology shifted to purely observable behaviors during the first half of the twentieth century, research on human consciousness has grown tremendously since the 1950s.

What aspects of consciousness to researchers study? Topics such as sleep, dreams, hypnosis, and the affects of psychoactive drugs are just a few of the major topics studied by psychologists.