ETHNIC MALAYS
(From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia)
(From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia)
Malays (Malay: Melayu Jawi: ملايو) are an ethnic group of Austronesian people predominantly inhabiting the Malay Peninsula including the southernmost parts of Thailand, south coast Myanmar and island of Singapore, coastal Indonesian including east of Sumatra, coastal Borneo, including Brunei, coastal Sarawak and Sabah, and the smaller islands which lie between these locations. These locations today is part of the modern nations of Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, Southern Thailand and Western Indonesia.
Today, the common identity that binds Malay
people together is their language (with variant of dialects exist among them),
Islam and their culture; although in the past Malay people were largely animist
and Hindu-Buddhist before conversion to Islam took place in the 15th century.
Malay culture has a number of similarities with cultures of neighboring ethnic
groups, such as those of Minangkabau people and Aceh.
The name "Malay" (Chinese: Mo-Lo-Yu or
local inscription: Malayu) was first mentioned in a Chinese account in the 644
CE to report the existence of a Malay kingdom in the southern islands of the
(Malay archipelago). At that time, "Malayu" might have referred to
the Melayu Kingdom on the east coast of Sumatra that centered around the Jambi
area. From that time onward, the term "Malay" has evolved from a
kingdom in Jambi to identifying the ethnic group that inhabits the region on
both sides of Malacca strait and beyond. One of the logical explanations of the
name origin has been verified in other languages, such as the Tamil word
malaiyur, used to refer the mountainous region where the civilization of
Kadaram was founded in Kedah (today), or the Javanese word mlayu (to run)
derived from mlaku (to walk or to travel), or the Malay term melaju (to
steadily accelerate), to refer the high mobility and migratory nature of its
people, however these suggestions remain as popular local beliefs without
corroborating evidence.
Etymology
The use of the native term "Melayu" to
refer to a distinct ethnic group is believed to have been popularized during
the consolidation of the Malacca Sultanate as a regional power in the 15th
century. It was used to describe the cultural culture of the Malaccans as
against foreigners from the same region, notably the Javanese and Thais.[17]
Prior to the 15th century, the term and its other spelling variants can be
found in foreign sources referring to either historical kingdoms or
geographical parts of Malay archipelago.
The Sanskrit word "Malayadvipa" that
appeared in chapter 48 of Vayu Purana was among the earliest foreign references
to the origin of the word "Melayu". It literally means "insular
mountain continent" and is described in the Purana as one of the provinces
in the mythical eastern archipelago that was full of gold and silver. Some
scholars equate the term with Sumatra, while most Indian scholars believe that
Sumatra is more correctly associated with Suvarnadvipa and Malayadvipa should
refer to the more mountainous Malay peninsula, An inscription on the south wall
of the Brihadeeswarar Temple that recorded the Chola invasion of the Malay
archipelago in the 11th century made a reference to Malaiur, a kingdom that had
"a strong mountain for its rampart", as one of the kingdoms that fell
to the Chola invaders.
The term "Maleu-Kolon" that appeared in
Ptolemy's work Geographia is another ancient term related to
"Melayu". It is believed to have originated from the Sanskrit term
malayakolam or malaikurram, referring to a geographical part of Malay
Peninsular.
References alluding to the word
"Melayu" can also be found in several Chinese records. Among the
earliest was that of Yi Jing who visited the Malay Archipelago between 688–695.
Yi Jing mentioned a kingdom known as Mo-Lo-Yu, which was a 15 day sail from
Bogha (Palembang), the capital of Sribhoga (Srivijaya). It took a 15 day sail
as well to reach Ka-Cha (Kedah) from Mo-lo-yu; therefore, it can be reasoned
that Mo-Lo-Yu would lie halfway between the two places. Some scholars relate
the Kingdom of Mo-Lo-Yu with Jambi in Sumatra, but this claim is disputed, as
the geographical location of Jambi doesn't match with Yi Jing's description of
a "half way sail between Ka-Cha (Kedah) and Bogha (Palembang)". In
the later Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368) and Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), the word
Ma-La-Yu was mentioned often in Chinese historical texts - with changes in
spelling due to the time span between the dynasties - to refer to a nation near
the southern sea. Among the terms used was "Bok-la-yu",
"Mok-la-yu" (木剌由), Ma-li-yu-er (麻里予兒), Oo-lai-yu (巫来由) - traced from the
written source of monk Xuan Zang), and Wu-lai-yu (無来由). In the chronicle of
Yuan Dynasty, the word "Ma-li-yu-er" was mentioned:
"..Animosity occurred between Siam and
Ma-li-yu-er (Malays) with both killing each other..."
The above text is referring to a period when the
Siamese launched their efforts to subjugate the small Malay states of the
northern Malay peninsular during the reign of Ram Khamhaeng of Sukhothai
Kingdom. In 1295, a Chinese envoy arrived at the Ram Khamhaeng's court bearing
an imperial order: "Keep your promise and do no evil to Ma-li-yu-er".
This kingdom of "Ma-li-yu-er that appeared in the Chinese record possibly
a similar kingdom that was mentioned by the famous Venetian traveler Marco Polo
(1254–1324) who lived during the same period. In his book Travels of Marco
Polo, he mentioned about a kingdom named "Malauir" which according to
him located in the Malay peninsula.
Based on the translation by Slamet Muljana, the
word bhūmi Mālayu (literally "Land of Malayu") is incribed on the
Padang Roco Inscription, dated 1286 CE,[30] according to the inscription, bhūmi
Mālayu is associated with the Dharmasraya kingdom. On the Amoghapasa
inscription, dated 1347 CE, the word Malayapura (literally "city of
Malaya" or "kingdom of Malaya") was proclaimed by Adityawarman,
again referring to Dharmasraya. The word "Melayu" is also mentioned
in the Malay annals referring to a river in Sumatra:
"...Here now is the story of a city called
Palembang in the land of Andelas. It was ruled by Demang Lebar Daun, a
descendant of Raja Shulan, and its river was the Muara Tatang. In the upper
reaches of the Muara Tatang was a river called Melayu, and on that river was a
hill called Si-Guntang Mahameru..."
During the European colonization of the area, the
word "Malay" was adopted into English via the Dutch word
"Malayo", itself derived from the Portuguese "Malaio",
which originates from the Malay word "Melayu".
TOTAL POPULATUION : 27.8
million
REGION WITH SIGTNIFICANT POPULATIONS
Majority populations
REGION WITH SIGTNIFICANT POPULATIONS
Majority populations
Malaysia 14,749,378
(2010 estimate)
Brunei
261,902
(2010 estimate)
Minority populations
Indonesia 8,789,585
(2010 estimate)
Thailand
3,354,475 (2010 estimate)
Singapore
653,449 (2010 estimate)
Languages
Malay, Indonesian, Jawi, Thai, English
Religion
Sunni Islam (approx. 99.9%)
History
Sunni Islam (approx. 99.9%)
History
Proto Malays Further information: History of
Austronesian peoples, Homeland of Austronesian languages
Also known as Melayu asli (aboriginal Malay) or
Melayu purba (ancient Malay), the Proto Malays are of Austronesian origin are
thought to have migrated to the Malay archipelago in a long series of
migrations between 2500 and 1500 BC.[31] The Encyclopedia of Malaysia: Early
History, has pointed out a total of three theories of the origin of Malay:
The Yunnan theory, Mekong river migration
(published 1889)
The theory of Proto Malay originating from Yunnan
is supported by R.H Geldern, J.H.C Kern, J.R Foster, J.R Logen, Slametmuljana
and Asmah Haji Omar.
Other evidences that support this theory include:
1.Stone tools found at Malay Archipelago which
are analogous to Central Asian tools;
2.Similarity of Malay customs and Assam customs;
and
3.the fact that the Malay language &
Cambodian language are kindred languages because the ancestral home of
Cambodians originated at the source of Mekong River.
The New Guinea theory (published 1965).
The Taiwan theory (published 1997).
The book "Contesting Malayness – Malay
Identity Across Boundaries" edited by Timothy P. Barnard reflects the
views of anthropologists that there is no such race as the "Malays"
to begin with, even if one has since developed in Malaysia. If one follow the original
migration of a certain group of southern Chinese of 6,000 years ago, some moved
to Taiwan (today's Taiwanese aborigines are their descendents), then to the
Philippines and later to Borneo (roughly 4,500 years ago) (today's Dayak and
other groups). These ancient people also split with some heading to Sulawesi
and others progressing into Java, and Sumatra. The final migration was to the
Malayan Peninsula roughly 3,000 years ago. A sub-group from Borneo moved to
Champa in Vietnam roughly 4,500 years ago. Interestingly, the Champa group
eventually moved to present day Kelantan in Malaysia. There are also traces of
the Dong Song and HoaBinh migration from Vietnam and Cambodia. There was also
the Southern Thai migration, from what we know as Pattani today. All these
groups share DNA and linguistic origins traceable to the island that is today
Taiwan, and the ancestors of these ancient people are traceable to southern
China.
However, in 2009, a comprehensive study of
genetic diversity and history of Asian populations was carried out by HUGO
(Human Genome Organization) involving almost 2000 people across Asia, points to
another theory of Asian migration pattern. The HUGO found genetic similarities
between populations throughout Asia and an increase in genetic diversity from
northern to southern latitudes. These findings indicates the origin of Asia's
population and support the hypothesis that Asia was populated primarily through
a single migration event from the south, entering South East Asian first. The South
East Asian civilizations including the Malays are possibly much older compared
to East Asian civilizations.
The proto Malays are believed to be seafarers
knowledgeable in oceanography and possessing agricultural skills. They moved
around from island to island in great distances between New Zealand and
Madagascar, and they served as navigation guides, crew and labour to Indian,
Arab, Persian and Chinese traders for nearly 2000 years. Over the years they
settled at various places and adopted various cultures and religions.
Deutero Malays
The earlier Proto Malay groups were later pushed
inland by the Deutero Malay settlers in the second wave of migration around 300
BC. The Deutero Malays are Iron Age people descended partly from the Chams of
Mainland Southeast Asia who came equipped with more advanced farming techniques
and new knowledge of metals. They are kindred but more Mongolized and greatly
distinguished from the Proto Malays which have shorter stature, darker skin,
slightly higher frequency of wavy hair, much higher percentage of
dolichocephaly and a markedly lower frequency of the epicanthic fold. The Deutero
Malay settlers were not nomadic compared to their predecessors, instead they
settled and established kampungs which serve as the main units in the society.
These kampungs were normally situated on the riverbanks or coastal areas and
generally self-sufficient in food and other necessities. By the end of the last
century BC, these kampungs beginning to engage in some trade with the outside
world.
The Deutero Malays are considered as the direct
ancestors of present day's Malay people. Their series of migration had
indirectly forced some groups of Proto Malays and aboriginal people to retreat
into the hill areas of the interior further upriver. Notable Proto Malays of
today are Moken, Jakun, Orang Kuala, Temuan and Orang Kanaq.
Indian influence
There is no definite evidence which dates the first Indian voyages across the Bay of Bengal but conservative estimates place the earliest arrivals on Malay shores at least 2,000 years ago. The discovery of jetty remains, iron smelting sites, and a clay brick monument dating back to 110 AD in Bujang Valley, shows that a maritime trading route with south Indian Tamil kingdoms was already established since the 2nd century AD. The growth of trade with India brought coastal people in much of the Malay world into contact with the major religions of Hinduism and Buddhism. Thus, Indian religions, cultural traditions and the Sanskrit language began to spread across the land. Temples were built in the Indian style, local kings began referring to themselves as Raja and more desirable aspects of Indian government were adopted.[39] Subsequently, small Malay states started to appear in the coastal areas of Malay peninsular, notably the Red Earth Kingdom (1st century), Negara Sri Dharmaraja (1st century), Gangga Negara (2nd century), Langkasuka (2nd century), and Kedah (2nd century). Around 6th century Malay states established in Sumatran east coast, the notable ones are Malayu in present day Jambi and Srivijaya in present day South Sumatra. Between the 7th and 13th centuries, many of these small, often prosperous Sumatran and peninsular maritime trading states, became part of the Srivijaya empire mandala, a great Malay kingdom centered in Palembang, Kadaram, Chaiya and Ligor.
Indian influence
There is no definite evidence which dates the first Indian voyages across the Bay of Bengal but conservative estimates place the earliest arrivals on Malay shores at least 2,000 years ago. The discovery of jetty remains, iron smelting sites, and a clay brick monument dating back to 110 AD in Bujang Valley, shows that a maritime trading route with south Indian Tamil kingdoms was already established since the 2nd century AD. The growth of trade with India brought coastal people in much of the Malay world into contact with the major religions of Hinduism and Buddhism. Thus, Indian religions, cultural traditions and the Sanskrit language began to spread across the land. Temples were built in the Indian style, local kings began referring to themselves as Raja and more desirable aspects of Indian government were adopted.[39] Subsequently, small Malay states started to appear in the coastal areas of Malay peninsular, notably the Red Earth Kingdom (1st century), Negara Sri Dharmaraja (1st century), Gangga Negara (2nd century), Langkasuka (2nd century), and Kedah (2nd century). Around 6th century Malay states established in Sumatran east coast, the notable ones are Malayu in present day Jambi and Srivijaya in present day South Sumatra. Between the 7th and 13th centuries, many of these small, often prosperous Sumatran and peninsular maritime trading states, became part of the Srivijaya empire mandala, a great Malay kingdom centered in Palembang, Kadaram, Chaiya and Ligor.
Srivijaya’s influence spread over all the coastal
areas of Sumatra and the Malay peninsula, western Java and western Borneo, as
well as the rest of the Malay Archipelago. Enjoying both Indian and Chinese
patronage, its wealth was gained mostly through trade. At its height, the Old
Malay language was used as its official language and became the lingua franca
of the region, replacing Sanskrit, the language of Hinduism and Buddhism. The
Srivijayan era is considered the golden age of Malay culture.
The glory of Srivijaya however began to wane
after the series of raids by Indian Chola Empire in 11th century. By the end of
13th century, the remnants of the Malay empire in Sumatra was finally destroyed
by the Javanese invaders during the Pamalayu expedition (Pamalayu literally
means: war against the Malayu).
The destruction of Srivijaya led to the diaspora
of the Srivijayan court and several attempts were made by the fleeing Malay
princes to revive the empire. In 1324, with the support of the loyal servants
of the empire, the Orang lauts, a Malay prince of Srivijaya origin, Sang Nila
Utama established the kingdom of Singapura in Temasek. His dynasty ruled the
island until the end of 14th century, when the Malay polity once again faced
the wrath of Javanese invaders. In 1401, his great grandson, Paduka Sri
Maharaja Parameswara headed north and established the Malacca Sultanate. The
Malacca sultanate succeeded Srivijaya and inherited much of the Malay royal and
cultural traditions, including most of the territories of its predecessor.
Another mighty Malay kingdom during this period
is Tambralinga, once a subordinate of Srivijaya, the kingdom began to grow
after the regression of the Srivijayan empire in 12th century. Between the 13th
to early 14th century, the kingdom managed to conquer most of the Malay
peninsular under its rule. The growth of the kingdom intensified under the
reign of Chandrabhanu Sridhamaraja (1230–1263), in which he had succeeded in
capturing the Jaffna Kingdom in Sri Lanka between 1247 until 1258. The invasion
marked an unrivaled feature in the Southeast Asian History, as it was the only
time there was an armed maritime expedition beyond the Southeast Asian borders.
The cultivation of Malay polity system also
diffused beyond the proper Sumatran-Peninsular border during this era. The age
avowed by exploration and migration of the Malays to establish kingdoms beyond
the traditional Srivijayan realm. Several exemplification are the enthronement
of a Tambralingan prince to reign the Lavo Kingdom in present-day Bangkok, the
foundation of Rajahnate of Cebu in the Visayas and the establishment of
Tanjungpura Kingdom in Borneo. The expansion is also eminent as it shaped the
ethnocultural development of the related Acehnese and Banjarese people and
further spreading the Indian influenced-Malay ethos within the regional sphere.
Islamization
The period of the 13th and 15th centuries saw the
arrival of Islam and the rise of the great port-city of Malacca on the
southwestern coast of the Malay peninsular[48] — two major developments that
altered the course of Malay history.
The Islamic faith arrived on the shores of what
are now the states of Kedah, Perak, Kelantan and Terengganu, from around the
12th century. The earliest archaeological evidence of Islam from the Malay
peninsula is the Terengganu Inscription Stone dating from the 14th century
found in Terengganu state, Malaysia.
By 15th century, the Malacca Sultanate, whose
hegemony reached over much of the western Malay archipelago, had become the
centre of Islamization in the east. The Malaccan tradition was transmitted
onwards and fostered a vigorous ethos of Malay identity. During this era, the
Islamic faith became closely identified with Malay society and played a
significant role in defining the Malay identity.
In 1511, the city of Malacca fell into the hands
of Portuguese conquistadors. However, Malacca remained an institutional
prototype: a paradigm of statecraft and a point of cultural reference for
successor states such as Johor Sultanate (1528–present), Perak Sultanate
(1528–present) and Pahang Sultanate (1470–present).
Across the South China Sea in 14th century,
another Malay realm, the Brunei Sultanate was on the rise to become the most
powerful polity in Borneo. By the middle of 15th century, Brunei entered into a
close relationship with Malacca Sultanate. The sultan married a Malaccan
princess, adopted Islam as the court religion, and introduced an efficient
administration modelled on Malacca.[55] Brunei profited from trade with Malacca
but gained even greater prosperity after the great Malay port was conquered by
the Portuguese in 1511. It reached its golden age in the mid-16th century when
it controlled land as far south as present day Kuching in Sarawak, north
towards the Philippine Archipelago. The empire broaden its influence in Luzon by
establishing an alliance with the Kingdom of Tondo and founded a satellite
state, Kota Seludong in present-day Manila. Brunei's fairly loose river based
governmental presence in Borneo projected the process of acculturation known as
"Malayization". Fine Malay Muslim cultures, including the language,
dress and single family dwelling were introduced to the natives primarily from
ethnic Dayaks, drawing them into the Sultanate. Dayak chiefs were incorporated
into the Malay hierarchy, being given the official titles of Datuk, Temenggong
and Orang Kaya. In West Kalimantan, the development of such sultanates of
Sambas, Sukadana and Landak tells a similar tale of recruitment among Dayak
people.
Other significant Malay sultanates were the Kedah
Sultanate (1136–present) and Patani Sultanate (1516–1771) that dominated the
northern part of the Malay peninsula. While Jambi Sultanate (1460–1907),
Palembang Sultanate (1550–1823) and Siak Sri Indrapura Sultanate (1725–1946)
controlled much of the southeastern shores of Sumatra.
Colonization
Between 1511 and 1984, numerous Malay kingdoms
and sultanates fell under direct colonization or became the protectorates of
different foreign powers, from European colonial powers like Portuguese, Dutch
and British, to regional powers like Siam and Japan.
In 1511, the Portuguese Empire captured the
capital city of Malacca Sultanate. The victorious Portuguese however, were
unable to extend their political influence beyond the fort of Malacca. The
Sultan maintained his overlordship on the lands outside Malacca and established
the Johor Sultanate in 1528 to succeed Malacca. The Portuguese Malacca faced
several unsuccessful retaliation attacks by Johor until 1614, when the combined
forces of Johor and the Dutch Empire, ousted the Portuguese from the peninsular
forever. As per agreement with Johor in 1606, the Dutch later took control of
Malacca.
Historically, Malay states of the peninsular had
a hostile relation with the Siamese. Malacca sultanate herself fought two wars
with the Siamese while northern Malay states came intermittently under Siamese
dominance for centuries. In 1771, the Kingdom of Siam under the new Chakri
Dynasty abolished the Pattani Sultanate and later annexed a large part of Kedah
Sultanate. Earlier, the Siamese under Ayutthaya Kingdom had already absorbed
Tambralinga and overrun the Singgora Sultanate in the 17th century. The Siamese
imposed a new administrative structure and created the provinces of Satun,
Songkhla, Phuket, Trang, Narathiwat, Yala and Pattani out of the former
sultanates.
In 1786, the island of Penang was leased to East
India Company by Kedah Sultanate in exchange of military assistance against the
Siamese. In 1819, the company also acquired Singapore from Johor Empire, and
later in 1824, Malacca from the Dutch. All these trading posts officially known
as Straits Settlements in 1826 and became the crown colony of British Empire in
1867. British intervention in the affairs of Malay states was formalized in
1895, when Malay rulers accepted British Residents in administration, and the
Federated Malay States was formed. In 1909, Kedah, Kelantan, Terengganu and
Perlis were handed over by Siam to the British. These states along with Johor,
later became known as Unfederated Malay States. During the World War II, all
these British possessions collectively known as British Malaya were occupied by
the Empire of Japan.
The twilight of the vast Bruneian Empire began
after the Castille War against the Spanish conquistadors, resulting the end of
the empire's dominance in the present-day Philippine archipelago together with
the quasi-Malay culture that once prevalent in the area, which largely
superseded by Hispanicization process implemented by the Spaniards. The decline
further culminated in the 19th century, when the kingdom lost most of its
remaining territories in Borneo to the White Rajahs of Sarawak and North Borneo
Chartered Company. Brunei was a British protectorate from 1888 to 1984.
Following the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 which
divided the Malay Archipelago into British zone in the north and a Dutch zone
in the south, all Malay sultanates in Sumatra and Southern Borneo became part
of Dutch East Indies. Though some of Malay sultans maintain their power under
Dutch control, some were abolished by the Dutch colonial government, like the
case of Riau Sultanate in 1911. Since the establishment of Republic of
Indonesia as a unitary state in 1950, all traditional Malay monarchies were
abolished, and the Sultans positions reduced to titular heads or pretenders.
Malay nationalism
The earliest and most influential instruments of
Malay national awakening were the periodicals which politicized the position of
the Malays in the face of colonialism and alien immigration of non-Malays. In
spite of repressions imposed by the British colonial government, there were no
less than 147 journals and newspapers published in Malaya between 1876 and
1941. Among notable periodicals were Al-Imam (1906), Pengasuh (1920), Majlis
(1935) and Utusan Melayu (1939). The rise of Malay nationalism was largely mobilized
by three nationalist factions – the radicals distinguishable into the Malay
left and the Islamic group which were both opposed to the conservative elites.
The Malay leftists were represented by Kesatuan
Melayu Muda, formed in 1938 by a group of Malay intelligentsia primarily
educated in Sultan Idris Training College, with an ideal of Greater Indonesia.
In 1945, they reorganized themselves into a political party known as Partai
Kebangsaan Melayu Malaya (PKMM). The Islamists were originally represented by
Kaum Muda consisted of Middle east –educated scholars with Pan-Islamic
sentiment. The first Islamic political party was Partai Orang Muslimin Malaya
(Hizbul Muslimin) formed in March 1948, later succeeded by Pan-Malayan Islamic
Party in 1951. The third group was the conservatives consisted of the
westernized elites who were bureaucrats and members of royal families that
shared a common English education mostly at the exclusive Malay College Kuala
Kangsar. They formed voluntary organizations known as Malay Associations in
various parts of the country and their primary goals were to advance the
interests of Malays as well as requesting British protection on Malay
positions. In March 1946, 41 of these Malay associations formed United Malays
National Organisation (UMNO), to assert Malay dominance over Malaya.
The Malay and Malayness has been a fundamental
basis for Malay ideology and Malay nationalism in Malaysia. All three Malay
nationalist factions believed in the idea of a "Malay Nation" (Bangsa
Melayu) and the position of Malay language, but disagreed over the role of
Islam and Malay rulers. The conservatives supported Malay language, Islam and
Malay monarchy as constituting the key pillars of Malayness, but within a
secular state that restricted the political role of Islam. The leftists
concurred with the secular state but wanted to end feudalism, whereas the
Islamic group favoured ending royalty but sought a much larger role of Islam.
The demise of the Malay sultanates of Deli,
Langkat, Serdang and Asahan in East Sumatra during the "Social
revolution" of 1946, drastically influenced their Malayan counterparts and
politically motivating them against the PKMM's ideal of Greater Indonesia and
the Islamists' vision of Islamic Republic. In March 1946, UMNO emerged with the
full support of the Malay sultans. The new movement forged a close political
link between rulers and subjects never before achieved. It generated an excited
Malay public opinion which, together with the surprising political apathy of the
non-Malays, led to Britain’s abandonment of the radical Malayan Union plan. By
July, UMNO succeeded in obtaining an agreement with the British to begin
negotiations for a new constitution. Negotiations continued from August to
November, between British officials on the one hand, and the Sultans'
representatives and UMNO and the other.
Two years later the semi independent Federation
of Malaya was born, which reflected a clear victory for Malay interests. The
new constitutional arrangement largely reverted to the basic pattern of pre-war
colonial rule and built on the supremacy of the individual Malay states. Malay
rights and privileges were safeguarded. The traditional Malay rulers thus
retained their prerogatives, while their English-educated descendants came to
occupy positions of authority at the centre, which was being progressively
decolonized. In August 1957, the Federation of Malaya, the West’s last major
dependency in Southeast Asia, attained independence in a peaceful transfer of
power. The federation was reconstituted as Malaysia with the addition in 1963
of Singapore (separated in 1965), Sabah and Sarawak.
Culture
Language
(Main article: Malay language)
See also: Jawi alphabet
The Malay language is one of the major languages
of the world[69] and of the Austronesian family. Variants and dialects of Malay
are used as an official language in Brunei, Malaysia, Indonesia and Singapore.
The language is also spoken in Thailand, Cocos Island, Christmas Island, Sri
Lanka. It is spoken natively by approximately 33 million people throughout the
Malay Archipelago and is used as a second language by an estimated 220 million.
The spread of the Malay language began with the
suzerainty of the Srivijaya empire and accelerated under Malacca sultanate. At
the height of Malacca’s power in the 15th century, it spread eastward to areas
far beyond Malacca’s control, such as Ternate and Tidore in the northern
Moluccas and historically northward towards Maynila in Luzon. Malay became the
language of court and literature in kingdoms outside traditional Malay speaking
areas. Under the Sultanate of Malacca, the language evolved into a form
recognizable to speakers of modern Malay.
In the age of learned languages, Malay was one of
the three major learned languages of Islamic scholarship. European writers of
the 17th and 18th centuries, such as Tavernier, Thomassin and Werndly describe
Malay as "language of the learned in all the Indies, like Latin in Europe".
It is also the most widely used during British and Dutch colonial era in the
Malay Archipelago.
The dialect of Johor Sultanate or Johor-Riau is
the standard speech among Malays in Singapore and Malaysia, and it formed the
original basis for the standardized Indonesian language. In the Malay
Peninsula, the Kelantanese dialect in its purest form is the most difficult to
understand. Other peninsular dialects include the Kedahan dialect, the Melakan
dialect, the Negeri Sembilan dialect, the Perak dialect, the Pahangite dialect
and the Terengganu dialect. In Thailand, Malays of Satun speak the Kedahan
dialect while those in the Patani provinces speak the Kelantanese lingo. In
Brunei, there are varieties of Malay dialects in use; Royal Malay, Kedayan,
Kampong Ayer, Bazaar Malay and Brunei Malay.
The Malay language was historically written in
Pallava, Kawi and Rencong. After the arrival of Islam, Arabic-based Jawi script
was adopted and is still in use today as a co-official script in Malaysia and
Brunei. Starting from the 17th century, as a result of British and Dutch
colonization, Jawi was gradually replaced by Rumi script and eventually became
the official modern script for Malay language in Malaysia, Singapore, and
Indonesia (co-official in Brunei).
Literature
(Main articles: Malay literature and Malay
folklore)
The rich oral literature and classical literature
of the Malays contain a great number of portraits of the people, from the
servant to the minister, from the judge to the Rajas, from the ancient to the
very contemporary periods, which together form the amorphous identity of the
Malays.
Considering the softness and mellifluence of the
Malay language, which lends itself easily to the requirements of rhyme and
rhythm, the originality and beauty in Malay literature can be assessed in its
poetical elements. Among the forms of poetry in Malay literature are – the
Pantun, Syair and Gurindam.
The earliest form of Malay literature was the
oral literature and its central subjects are traditional folklore relating to
nature, animals and people. The folklore were memorized and passed from one
generation of storytellers to the next. Many of these tales were also written
down by penglipur lara (storytellers) for example: Hikayat Malim Dewa, Hikayat
Malim Deman, Hikayat Raja Donan, Hikayat Anggun Cik Tunggal, and Hikayat Awang
Sulung Merah Muda.
When Indian influences made their way to the
Malay Archipelago around 1700 years ago, Malay literature began incorporating
Indian elements. Literature of this time is mostly translations of Sanskrit
literature and romances, or at least some productions inspired by such, and is
full of allusions to Hindu mythology. Probably to this early time may be traced
such works as Hikayat Seri Rama (a free translation of the Ramayana), Hikayat
Bayan Budiman (an adaptation of Śukasaptati) and Hikayat Panca Tanderan (an
adaptation of Hitopadesha).
The era of classical Malay literature started
after the arrival of Islam and the invention of Jawi script (Arabic based Malay
script). Since then, Islamic beliefs and concepts began to make its mark on
Malay literature. The Terengganu Inscription Stone, which is dated to 1303, is
the earliest known narrative Malay writing. The stone is inscribed with an
account of history, law, and romance in Jawi script.
At its height, Malacca sultanate was not only the
center of Islamization, but also the center of Malay cultural expressions
including literature. During this era, notable Middle Eastern literary works
were translated and religious books were written in Malay language. Among
famous translated works are Hikayat Muhammad Hanafiah and Hikayat Amir Hamzah.
The most important piece of Malay literary works is perhaps the famed Malay
Annals or Sulalatus Salatin. It was called "the most famous, distinctive
and best of all Malay literary works" by one of the most prominent
scholars in Malay studies, Sir Richard O. Winstedt. The exact date of its
composition and the identity of its original author are uncertain, but under
the order of Sultan Alauddin Riaayat Shah III of Johor in 1612, Tun Sri Lanang
oversaw the editorial and compilation process of the Malay Annals.
In 19th century, the Malay literature received
some notable additions through writings of Abdullah bin Abdul Kadir, a famous
Malacca-born munshi of Singapore. Abdullah is regarded as the most cultured
Malay who ever wrote, one of the greatest innovators in Malay letters and the
father of modern Malay literature. His most important works are the Hikayat
Abdullah (an autobiography), Kisah Pelayaran Abdullah ke Kelantan (an account
of his trip for the government to Kelantan), and Kisah Pelayaran Abdullah ke Mekah
(a narrative of his pilgrimage to Mecca 1854). His work was an inspiration to
future generations of writers and marks an early stage in the transition from
classical Malay literature to modern Malay literature.
Religion
(Main article: Malay Islamic identity)
In the beginning, Malays were animists, believing
in the existence of spirits, known as semangat (spirit), in everything. Around
the opening of the Christian era, Hinduism and Mahayana Buddhism were
introduced by Indian traders to the Malay Archipelago, where they flourished
until the 13th century, just before the arrival of Islam brought by Arab,
Indian and Chinese Muslim traders. In the 15th century, Islam of the orthodox
Sunni sect flourished in the Malay world under the Malacca Sultanate. In contrast
with Hinduism, which transformed early Malay society only superficially, Islam
can be said to have really taken root in the hearts and minds of the Malays.
Since this era, the Malays have traditionally had a close identification with
Islam[84] and they have not changed their religion since. This identity is so
strong that it is said to become Muslim was to masuk Melayu (to become Malay).
Nevertheless, the earlier beliefs having deeper
roots, they have maintained themselves against the anathemas of Islam – and
indeed Sufism or the mysticism of Shia Islam have become intertwined among the
Malays, with the spirits of the earlier animistic world and some elements of
Hinduism.
Following the 1970s, Islamic revival (also
referred as re-Islamization) throughout the Muslim world, many traditions that
contravene the teaching of Islam and contain elements of shirk were abandoned
by the Malays. Among these practices was the mandi safar festival (Safar bath),
a bathing festival to achieve spiritual purity, in which can be discerned
features similar to some of those of the Durga Puja of India.
Approximately 99.999% of modern ethnic Malays are
the adherents of Sunni Islam and the most important Malay festivals are those
of Islamic origin; Hari Raya Aidilfitri (Eid ul-Fitr), Hari Raya Aidiladha (Eid
al-Adha), Awal Muharram (Islamic New Year) and Maulidur Rasul (Mawlid –
Birthday of the Prophet).
Architecture
Various cultural influences, notably Chinese,
Indian and Europeans, played a major role in forming Malay architecture. Until
recent time, wood was the principal material used for all Malay traditional
buildings. However, some remarkable stone structures were also found and
effectively restored particularly the religious complexes from the time of
Srivijaya Empire and ancient isthmian Malay kingdoms.
Candi Muara Takus and Candi Muaro Jambi in
Sumatra are among the examples that associated with the architectural elements
of Srivijaya Empire. However, the most of Srivijayan architecture was
represented at Chaiya (now a province in Thailand) in Malay peninsular, which
was without doubt a very important centre during the Srivijaya period. The type
of structure consists of a cell-chamber to house the Buddha image and the
summit of structure was erected in the form of stupa with successive,
superimposed terraces which is the best example at Wat Pra Borom That of Chaiya.
There is also evidence of Hindu shrines or Candi
around south Kedah between the mount Jerai and the Muda River valley, an area
known as Bujang Valley. Within an area of about 350 square kilometers, 87 early
historic religious sites have been reported and there are 12 candis located on
mountain tops, a feature which suggests may derive from pre-historic Malay
beliefs regarding sanctity of high places.
Early reference on Malay architecture in Malay
peninsular can be found in several Chinese records. A 7th century Chinese
account tells of Buddhist pilgrims calling at Langkasuka and mentioned the city
as being surrounded by a wall on which towers had been built and was approached
through double gates. Another 7th century account of a special Chinese envoy to
Red Earth Kingdom in Malay peninsular, recorded that the capital city had three
gates more than hundred paces apart, which were decorated with paintings of
Buddhist themes and female spirits.
The first detailed description of Malay
architecture was on the great wooden Istana (Palace) of Sultan Mansur Shah
(reigned 1458–1477) of Malacca. Based on the Sejarah Melayu, the building had a
raised seven bay structures on wooden pillars with a seven tiered roof in
cooper shingles and decorated with gilded spires and Chinese glass mirrors.
The traditional Malay houses are built using
simple timber-frame structure. It have pitched roofs, porches in the front,
high ceilings, many openings on the walls for ventilation,[97] and are often
embellished with elaborate wood carvings. The beauty and quality of Malay wood
carvings were meant to serve as visual indicators of the social rank and status
of the owners themselves.
Several design elements of traditional Malay
architecture are adapted to modern structures to reflect the Malaysian
identity. The stilt elevated undulating roof structure of the KLIA is supposed
to imitate the traditional Malay-styled raised kampung houses. Wood, an
important element in traditional Malay buildings, is also reinterpreted and
readapted in modern landscape in the KLIA and Putrajaya. In Putrajaya, the
Prime Minister’s office is lined with wood panels to achieve the design goal.
The underside of the KLIA’s domed roof structure is similarly “clad in narrow
strips of wood” which the architect suggests, “alludes to vernacular Malaysian
timber structures, reinterpreting traditional building methods and
strengthening sense of local identity”. Non-architectural elements of the Malay
heritage are also employed. The entrance to the Petronas Twin Towers is adorned
with contemporary Malay motifs adapted from traditional handicrafts, including
Songket and timber carvings inspired by images of the tropical rainforests.
Visual art Wood carving is a part of classical
Malay visual arts. The Malays had traditionally adorned their monuments, boats,
weapons, tombs, musical instrument, and utensils by motives of flora,
calligraphy, geometry and cosmic feature. The art is done by partially removing
the wood using sharp tools and following specific patterns, composition and
orders. The art form is seen as an act of devotion of the craftsmen to the
creator and a gift to his fellowmen.
The art form is mainly contributed due to the
abundance of timber on the Malay Archipelago and also by the skillfulness of
the woodcarvers that have allowed the Malays to practice woodcarving as a
craft. The natural tropical settings where flora and fauna and cosmic forces is
abundant has inspired the motives to be depict in abstract or styled form into
the timber board. With the coming of Islam, geometric and Islamic calligraphy
form were introduced in the wood carving. The woods used are typically from tropical
hardwood species which is known to be durable and can resist the attacks of the
fungi, power-boots beetles and termites.
A typical Malay traditional houses or mosque
would have been adorned with more than 20 carved components The carving on the
walls and the panels allow the air breeze to circulate effectively in and out
of the building and can let the sunlight to light the interior of the
structure. At the same time, the shadow cast by the panels would also create a
shadow based on the motives adding the beauty on the floor. Thus, the carved
components performed in both functional and aesthetic purposes.
Cuisine
(Main article: Malay cuisine)
Different Malay regions are all known for their
unique or signature dishes – Pattani, Terengganu and Kelantan for their Nasi
dagang, Nasi kerabu and Keropok lekor, Negeri Sembilan for its lemak-based
dishes, Pahang for its gulai tempoyak, Kedah for its northern-style Asam laksa,
Malacca for its spicy Asam Pedas, Perlis and Satun for their Bunga kuda desert,
Sarawak and Sambas for their Bubur pedas, Riau for their ikan patin (Pangasius
fish) dishes; Gulai ikan patin and Asam Pedas ikan patin, Melayu Deli of Medan
North Sumatra for their Nasi goreng teri Medan (Medan anchovy fried rice) and
Gulai Ketam (gulai crab), Jambi for its Panggang Ikan Mas, Palembang for its
Mie celor and Pempek and Brunei for its unique Ambuyat dish.
The main characteristic in traditional Malay
cuisine is undoubtedly the generous use of spices. The coconut milk is also
important in giving the Malay dishes their rich, creamy character. The other
foundation is belacan (shrimp paste), which is used as a base for sambal, a
rich sauce or condiment made from belacan, chillies, onions and garlic. Malay
cooking also makes plentiful use of lemongrass and galangal.
Nearly every Malay meal is served with rice, the
staple food in many other East Asian cultures. Although there are various type
of dishes in a Malay meal, all are served at once, not in courses. Food is
eaten delicately with the fingers of right hand, never with the left which is
used for personal ablutions, and Malays rarely use utensils. Because most of
Malay people are Muslims, Malay cuisine follows Islamic halal dietary law
rigorously. Protein intake are mostly taken from beef, water buffalo, goat, and
lamb meat, and also includes poultry and fishes. Pork and any non-halal meats,
also alcohol is prohibited and absent from Malay daily diet.
Nasi Lemak, rice cooked in rich coconut milk
probably is the most popular dish ubiquitous in Malay town and villages. Nasi
lemak is considered as Malaysia's national dish. Another example is Ketupat or
nasi himpit, glutinous compressed rice cooked in palm leafes, is popular
especially during Hari Raya or Eid ul-Fitr. Various meats and vegetables could
be made into Gulai or Kari, a type of curry dish with variations of spices
mixtures that clearly display Indian influence already adopted by Malay people
since ancient times. Laksa, a hybrid of Malay and Peranakan Chinese cuisine is
also a popular dish. Malay cuisine also adopted some their neighbors' cuisine
traditions, such as rendang adopted from Minangkabau in Sumatra, and satay from
Java, however Malay people has developed their own distinctive taste and
recipes.
Performing arts.
The Malays have a diverse kind of music and dance
which are fusions of different cultural influences. Typical genres range from
traditional Malay folk dances dramas like Mak Yong to the Arab-influenced Zapin
dances. Choreographed movements also vary from simple steps and tunes in Dikir
barat to the complicated moves in Joget Gamelan.
Traditional Malay music is basically percussive.
Various kinds of gongs provide the beat for many dances. There are also drums
of various sizes, ranging from the large rebana ubi used to punctuate important
events to the small jingled-rebana (frame drum) used as an accompaniment to
vocal recitations in religious ceremonies.[104]
The Persian-influenced Nobat music became part of
the Royal Regalia of Malay courts since the arrival of Islam in 12th century
and only performed in important court ceremonies. Its orchestra includes the
sacred and highly revered instruments of nehara (kettledrums), gendang
(double-headed drums), nafiri (trumpet), serunai (oboe), and sometimes a
knobbed gong and a pair of cymbals.[48]
Indian influences are strong in a traditional
shadow play known as Wayang Kulit where stories from Hindu epics; Ramayana
& Mahabharata form the main repertoire. There are four distinctive types of
shadow puppet theater that can be found in Malay peninsular; Wayang Gedek,
Wayang Purwa, Wayang Melayu and Wayang Siam.
Other well-known Malay performing arts are;
Bangsawan theatre, Dondang Sayang love ballad and Mak Inang dance from Malacca
Sultanate, Jikey and Mek Mulung theatre from Kedah, Asyik dance and Menora
dance drama from Patani and Kelantan, Ulek mayang and Rodat dance from
Terengganu, Boria theatre from Penang, Canggung dance from Perlis, Mukun warble
from Brunei and Sarawak[108][109][110] and Serampang Dua Belas dance from
Serdang.
Traditional dress
(Main articles: Baju Melayu and Baju Kurung)
(Main articles: Baju Melayu and Baju Kurung)
In Malay culture, clothes and textiles are
revered items of beauty, power and status. Numerous accounts in Malay hikayats
stressed the special place occupied by textiles. The Malay handloom industry
can be traced its origin since 13th century when the eastern trade route
flourished under Sung Dynasty. Mention of locally made textiles as well as the
predominance of weaving in Malay peninsular was made in various Chinese and
Arab accounts. Among well-known Malay textiles are Songket and Batik.
Common classical Malay attire for men consists of
a baju (a long sleeve shirt), a small leg celana (trousers), a sarong worn
around the waist, and a tanjak or tengkolok (headgear). It was also common for
a Malay warrior to have a Kris tucked into the front fold of sarong.
Traditional Malay dress varies between different
regions but the most popular traditional dress in modern day are Baju Kurung
(for women) and Baju Melayu (for men), which both recognized as the national
dress for Malaysia and Brunei, and also worn by Malay communities in Indonesia,
Singapore and Thailand.
In contrast to Baju Melayu which continued to be
worn as ceremonial dress only, Baju Kurung is worn daily throughout the year by
a majority of Malay women. Sighting of female civil servants, professional workers
and students wearing Baju Kurung is common in Malaysia and Brunei.
Martial art
(Main article: Silat Melayu)
(Main article: Silat Melayu)
Silat Melayu and its variants can be found
throughout the Malay world; Malay peninsular, Singapore, Riau Islands, Sumatra
and coastal areas of Borneo. Archaeological evidence reveals that, by 6th
century, formalized combat arts were being practiced in Malay peninsular and
Sumatra.[115] Earliest forms of Silat is believed to have been developed and
used in the armed forces of ancient Malay kingdoms of Langkasuka (2nd century)
and Srivijaya (7th century).
The influence of Malay empires of Srivijaya and
Malacca Sultanate has contributed to the spread of this martial art in the
Malay Archipelago. Through a complex maze of sea channels and river capillaries
that facilitated exchange and trade throughout the region, Silat wound its way
into the dense rainforest and up into the mountains. The legendary Laksamana
Hang Tuah of Malacca is one of the most renowned pesilat (Silat practitioner)
in history and even considered by some as the father of Malay silat. Since the
classical era, Silat Melayu underwent great diversification and formed what is
today traditionally recognized as the source of Indonesian Pencak Silat.
Apart from Silat, Tomoi is also practiced by the
Malays mainly in the northern states of Malay peninsular. It is a variant of
Indo-Chinese forms of kickboxing which is believed to have been spread in the
Southeast Asian mainland since the time of Funan Empire (68 AD).
Traditional games
A Wau-maker's workshop in Kelantan,
Malaysia.Traditional Malay games usually require craft skills and manual dexterity
and can be traced their origins since the days of Malacca Sultanate. Sepak Raga
and kite flying are among traditional games that were mentioned in the Malay
Annals being played by nobilities and royalties of the Malay sultanate.
Sepak Raga is one of the most popular Malay games
and has been played for centuries. Traditionally, Sepak raga was played in
circle by kicking and keeps aloft the rattan ball using any part of the body
except the arms and hands. It is now recognized as Malaysia’s national sport
and played in the international sporting events such as Asian Games and
Southeast Asian Games.
Other popular game is Gasing spinning which
usually played after the harvest season. A great skill of craftsmanship is required
to produce the most competitive Gasing (top), some of which spin for two hours
at a time.
Possibly the most popular Malay games is the Wau
(a unique kind of kite from east coast of Malay peninsular) or kite flying.
Wau-flying competitions take place with judges awarding points for
craftsmanship (Wau are beautiful, colourful objects set on bamboo frames),
sound (all Malay kites are designed to create a specific sound as they are
buffeted about in the wind) and altitude.
The Malays also have a variant of Mancala board
game known as Congkak. The game is played by moving stones, marbles, beads or
shells around a wooden board consisting of twelve or more holes. Mancala is
acknowledged as the oldest game in the world and can be traced its origin since
Ancient Egypt. As the game dispersed around the globe, every culture has
invented its own variation including the Malays.
Names and Titles
(Main articles: Malay names and Malay styles and titles)
(Main articles: Malay names and Malay styles and titles)
Malay personal names are complex, reflecting the
hierarchical nature of the society, and titles are considered important. It has
undergone tremendous change, evolving with the times to reflect the different
influences that the Malays been subjected over the ages. Although some Malay
names still retain parts of its indigenous Malay and Sanskrit influences, as
Muslims, Malays have long favored Arabic names as marks of their religion.
Malay names are patronymic and can be consisted
of up to four parts; a title, a given name, the family name, and a description
of the individual’s male parentage. Some given names and father's names can be
composed of double names and even triple names, therefore generating a longer
name. For example, one of the Malaysian national footballer has the full name
Mohd Aidil Zafuan Abdul Radzak, where 'Mohd Aidil Zafuan' is his triple given
name and 'Abdul Radzak' is his father's double given name.
In addition to naming system, the Malay language
also has a complex system of titles and honorifics, which are still extensively
used in Malaysia and Brunei. By applying these Malay titles to a normal Malay
name, a more complex name is produced. The current Prime Minister of Malaysia
has the full name Dato' Seri Mohd Najib bin Tun Haji Abdul Razak, where 'Dato'
Seri' is a Malay title of honour, 'Mohd Najib' is his personal name, 'bin' is
derived from an Arabic word Ibnu meaning "son of" if in case of
daughter it is replaced with binti, an Arabic word "bintun" meaning
"daughter of", introduces his father's titles and names, 'Tun' is a
higher honour, 'Haji' denotes his father's Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca, and 'Abdul
Razak' is his father's personal name.
The more extremely complex Malay names however,
belong to the Malay royalties. The reigning Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia
has the full regnal name Duli Yang Maha Mulia Sultan Abdul Halim Mu'adzam Shah
Alhaj Ibni Al- Marhum Sultan Badlishah, while the reigning Sultan of Brunei
officially known as Kebawah Duli Yang Maha Mulia Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan
Haji Hassanal Bolkiah Mu'izzaddin Waddaulah ibni Al-Marhum Sultan Haji Omar
'Ali Saifuddien Sa'adul Khairi Waddien.
Sub-ethnic groups
|
Ethnic group
|
Historical realms
|
Regions with significant
population
|
|
Bangka-Belitung Malay
|
|
Bangka–Belitung Islands
|
|
Bangkok Malay
|
|
Bangkok
|
|
Bengkulu Malay
|
|
Bengkulu
|
|
Berau Malays
|
|
Berau Regency
|
|
Bruneian Malay
|
Bruneian Empire (7th– 14th
century)
Brunei Sultanate (1363–present)
|
Brunei, Labuan, Sarawak, Sabah
|
|
Bugis Malay
Assimilated Malay group of Bugis
descent
|
Linggi Sultanate (1700–1777)
Selangor Sultanate
(1745–present)
|
Selangor, Johor, Pahang, Riau,
Riau Islands
|
|
Deli Malay
|
Asahan Sultanate (1630–1946)
Deli Sultanate (1630–present)
Langkat Sultanate (1568–present)
Serdang Sultanate (1728–1946)
|
North Sumatera
|
|
Jambi Malay
|
Jambi Kingdom (7th century)
Dharmasraya (1183–1347)
Jambi Sultanate (1460–1907)
|
Jambi
|
|
Javanese Malay
Assimilated Malay group of
Javanese descent
|
|
Johor, Selangor
|
|
Johorean Malay
|
Johor Sultanate (1528–present)
Muar Sultanate (1707–1877)
|
Johor
|
|
Kedahan Malay
|
Bujang Valley Civilization (1st
century)
Langkasuka (2nd −14th century)
Kedah Kingdom(Kedah Tua) (7th–
12th century)
Kedah Sultanate (1136–present)
Perlis Kingdom (1842–present)
|
Kedah, Perlis, Penang, Perak,
Satun, Trang, Krabi, Phuket, Phang Nga, Ranong, Nakhon Si Thammarat,
Phattalung, Songkhla, Yala, Tanintharyi Division
|
|
Kelantanese Malay
|
Red Earth Kingdom (1st −6th
century)
Kelantan Sultanate (1267–present)
Jembal Sultanate (1638–1720)
|
Kelantan
|
|
Loloan Malay
|
|
Jembrana Regency
|
|
Malaccan Malay
|
Malacca Sultanate (1402–1511)
|
Malacca
|
|
Minangkabau Malay
Assimilated Malay group of
Minangkabau descent
|
Chiefdom of Negeri Sembilan
(1773–present)
|
Negeri Sembilan, Selangor
|
|
Pahangite Malay
|
Pahang Sultanate (1470–present)
|
Pahang
|
|
Palembangnese Malay
|
Srivijaya (7th–13th century)
Palembang Sultanate (1550–1823)
|
South Sumatera
|
|
Pattani Malay
|
Negara Sri Dharmaraja Kingdom
(1st Millenium–15th century)
Langkasuka (2nd −14th century)
Pattani Sultanate (1516–1771)
Singgora Sultanate
(1603–1689)
Reman Sultanate (1785–1909)
|
Patani, Yala, Narathiwat,
Songkhla, Krabi, Kedah, Kelantan
|
|
Perakian Malay
|
|
Perak
|
|
Pontianak Malay
|
Tanjungpura Kingdom (880–1590)
Matam Sultanate (1590–1948) Pontianak Sultanate (1771–1950) Sambas Sultanate (1675–1944) |
West Kalimantan
|
|
Riau Malay
|
|
Riau, Riau Islands
|
|
Sarawakian
Malay
|
Sarawak Sultanate (1598–1641)
|
Sarawak
|
|
Singaporean Malay
|
|
Singapore
|
|
Sri Lankan Malay
|
|
Sri Lanka
|
|
Tamiang Malay
|
|
Aceh Tamiang Regency
|
|
Terengganuan Malay
|
Terengganu Sultanate (1708–present)
|
Terengganu
|
No comments:
Post a Comment